Exploring the Martial Arts Background of Yue Fei (岳飛, 1103-1142)

Before exploring Yue Fei’s martial arts training and background, it is important to begin with the mythology prevalent in Chinese culture that associates people and events with deities, immortals, and famous Chinese figures both real and legendary.

I use the word “mythology” because some figures who are associated with certain martial arts styles are transmitted legends passed down through the generations. And it is well to acknowledge that in Chinese culture, antiquity is revered, and so are the famous personalities and theories associated with specific Chinese martial arts styles.

Through discussions with my teachers and other Chinese martial arts masters, I have come to realize that it is improper, and even offensive, to question matters such as the Five Element Theory as it pertains to Xingyi Quan, or the Yi Jing and Eight Diagram Theory and its association with Bagua Zhang. Even when historical data show that these are improbabilities, one must tread cautiously.

In Chinese martial arts, figures such as Zhang Sanfeng (張三豐) are associated with Taiji Quan, Damo (達摩) with Shaolin Quan, and Yue Fei with styles such as Yue Shi Lian Quan, Xingyi Quan (形意拳), and Chuo Jiao (戳腳).

Whether Zhang Sanfeng influenced the development of Taiji Quan, or Damo the development of Shaolin martial arts, is not the scope of this post. My focus here is on Yue Fei and his martial arts training.

Since there is detailed biographical information on Yue Fei’s life, I will not dwell on his rise from poverty, on his military achievements fighting the Jurchen-led Jin (金), or his betrayal and execution by Qin Hui (秦桧). But there is one aspect of Yue Fei’s biographical life that is of special interest, and that is the documentation of his two martial arts teachers.

Note: The Jin Dynasty was founded by the Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaking people from Northeast Asia who overthrew the Liao Dynasty (遼朝, 907–1125) and founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), conquering northern China. The Jurchens were fierce warriors who excelled in horse breeding and mounted archery.

The Song Military Weapons and Tactics

First, it is important to understand the weapons and tactics of war, referred to as martial arts, during the Bei Song (北宋,960–1127) – Northern Song Dynasty, and, more importantly, those of the Nan Song (南宋,1127–1279) – Southern Song Dynasty, which is the time in which Yue Fei lived and died.

The Army

The Song fielded a highly disciplined professional army that was well trained and equipped. It relied heavily on infantry. Cavalry was used largely for reconnaissance and shock troops as they lacked a consistent supply of war horses due to constant conflicts with the Northern Jin, and, later, with the Mongols.

Conventional Weapons

Bows and crossbows were the primary weapons of the Song Army and accounted for 60 percent of the armory. Spears, swords and war chariots comprised the rest.

Bows were used by both infantry and cavalry and had a range of 200 meters. Crossbows were deployed by infantry; the crossbows required the use of the feet to draw and had a range of 300 meters. Large mechanical crossbows required several men to operate the bow and had a range that extended between 500 to 1000 meters.

Gunpowder Weapons

The Song army, especially during the Southern Song, possessed a variety of defensive weapons that used gunpowder. These included incendiary arrows, fire-spurting spears, and hollow bamboo cannons. Weapons that required the use of gunpowder were only functional at close range.

Equipment

Infantry soldiers wore thick heavy armor that weighed upwards of 60 pounds. Cavalry deployed for reconnaissance used light armor, while cavalry used as shock troops wore heavy armor. Cavalry was usually stationed on the wings.

Tactics

The Song army was not built for invading enemy territory. Instead, it adopted and employed sophisticated defensive tactics.

When deploying for battle, swordsmen and spearmen would be placed in the front followed by archers and crossbowmen. Large heavy war chariots, known as Ruyi, served as bastions and were deployed according to the adopted defensive strategy.

Upon the approach of the enemy, bows and crossbows were used to thin the enemy lines. When the enemy breached the front defensive lines, combat was hand-to-hand with swords and spears.

Note: The Song built a variety of chariots; some were used for navigation and directional purposes. While the Ruyi could be deployed using heavy mechanical crossbows for ranges up to 1000 meters, they could switch to crossbows and bows for ranges between 500 and 200 meters, and to long spears for close combat.

While the Ruyi chariots were essentially an ancient version of a tank, they had one major flaw, which the enemy exploited. The wooden chariots would burn easily when attacked with incendiary arrows, quickly rendering them useless.

The Wu Jiu (武舉) – Military Examination System During the Song Dynasty

Since the Song Dynasty fully adopted the Tang Dynasty’s Wu Jiu – Military Examination system, let us briefly examine its prerequisites.

The Tang Dynasty Military Examination had two main requirements. The first required proficiency in horsemanship, archery, spearmanship, and the handling of other weapons. The second considered physical strength, physical fitness, literacy, speech, and appearance. Distinguished candidates were awarded the Gao Shen (告身), an official document, by the Ministry of War, and the Imperial Court would grant favored positions based on different scores.

The Jin Shi (進士) – Scholarly Examination

The Jin Shi, or Scholarly Examination, was far more distinguished than the Military Examination and required skill in poetry, oration, knowledge of Confucian classics, and ability in political affairs. Requirements were strict and resulted in a high rate of failure.  Successful candidates would receive high bureaucratic appointments by the Imperial Court.

The Song Dynasty, in addition to using the Jin Shi, later adopted the Dian Shi (殿試) – Palace Examination, which was overseen directly by the emperor.

Note: This mention of the Song Dynasty’s weapons, tactics of war, and the Military, and Scholarly Examinations, serves as context for the goals of this post: first, what was considered martial arts during the Song Dynasty, and, second, Yue Fei’s martial arts teachers.

Yue Fei’s Two Martial Arts Teachers

Yue Fei’s biography mentions that he had two martial arts teachers: Zhou Tong (周侗, 1040-1119) and Chen Guang (陳廣, 1122-?).

While Zhou Tong was a real historical figure, his image is largely fictionalized and embellished because of folklore. The Biography of Yue Fei was produced by Yue Ke (岳珂,1183-1243), the grandson of Yue Fei, through the direction of his father Yue Lin (岳霖,1130-?). This biography only briefly mentions Zhou Tong, “He learned archery from Zhou Tong, mastered the skills, and could shoot with both hands. After Tong’s death, he set up a sacrifice at his tomb.” Another mention is in the second volume of Yue Fei’s biography pertaining to a lesson where Yue Fei demonstrated a high level of archery skills.

There is no doubt that Zhou Tong was an influential teacher who had an impact on Yue Fei’s life, but many of the stories about the martial arts imparted by him are fictional and have grown with the passing of time.

Historical records are even more scarce for Chen Guang, Yue Fei’s second teacher. Several sources note that Yue Fei’s maternal grandfather, Yao Daweng (姚大翁), hired the famous spearman Chen Guang to instruct Yue Fei in spear techniques. The training lasted one year when Yue Fei was not yet 20 years old and included physical strength training, combat techniques at close quarters with the sword, spearmanship on horseback, and other military skills.

While the superior spearmanship for which Yue Fei was renowned can be attributed to Chen Guang, there is no mention of empty-hand combative arts. And while some combative arts that included empty-hand skills were practiced by the public during the Song Dynasty, and Yue Fei might have learned some of these skills, they would have been useless on the battlefield.

Four Generals of the Southern Song Dynasty

Many Chinese martial arts practitioners, especially those who practice styles whose origins credit Yue Fei, recognize him as the anti-Jin general, and some also believe that he was the anti-Mongol general.

In 1127, the Jurchen-led Jin captured Kaifeng (開封), capital of the Song Dynasty. Emperor Song Huizong (宋徽宗) and his adopted son, Song Qinzong (宋欽宗), as well as members of the imperial family, nobles and court officials, were taken prisoner, effectively ending the Song Dynasty and losing more than half of its territory to the Jin.

Note: Emperor Huizong reigned from 1100-1126. His son, Qinzong, reigned briefly from 1126-1127. From that time, the Song Dynasty began to be classified by historians as the Northern Song and the Southern Song.

Emperor Gaozong (高宗, 1107-1187) of the Southern Song, moved his capital to Lin’an (臨安). Four generals were appointed to protect the Qing Ling Huai He line (淮河秦岭), which stretched from the Qing Ling Mountains to the west to the Huai He River to the east. This line separated the Southern Song from the Jurchen-led Jin.

Historically, the four generals were referred to as Zhong Xing Si Jiang (中興四將) – Four Generals of the Restoration. They were assigned to protect various sectors of the northern border. The generals were Yue Fei, Han Shizhong, Zhang Jun, and Liu Guangshi.

Yue Fei (岳飛, 1103-1142) was responsible for the Hubei/Henan theater, including the security of the Yangtze River’s upper and middle reaches. He was known for his unwavering loyalty and his victory in the Battle of Yancheng. He was strongly anti-Jin and against any appeasement strategy. He conducted several northern expeditions, regaining lost territory in the Xiang Yang (襄阳) region.

Han Shizhong (韩世忠, 1089-1151) was responsible for the Huai/Jiangsu Theater. He protected the eastern Huai River region and defended the Yangtze River against Jin forces, preventing the Jin cavalry from crossing. He also had strong anti-Jin sentiments.

Zhang Jun (张俊, 1086-1154) was responsible for the Huai West/Zhejiang theater. He defended the western Huai River region and western Zhejiang. He was often accused of being too passive and avoiding direct confrontation. While he initially fought the Jin, he complied with yielding control of military power to the Imperial court, which weakened the influence of the generals.

Liu Guangshi (刘光世,1086-1142) was responsible for Huai West/Anhui theater. He defended Jiankang and the Huai Xi region and acted as the Capital Patrol Commissioner. He also complied with yielding control of the military to the Imperial court.

The Shao Xing He Yi (紹興和議) – Shao Xing Peace Agreement

Fearing constant pressure from the Jurchen-led Jin, an agreement was reached in 1141 between Emperor Gaozong and the Jin; the pact was called the Shao Xing Peace Agreement. The emperor recalled all four generals. Yue Fei was executed in 1142 due to political intrigue by the prime minister, Qin Hui.

While Gaozong retained his position as emperor, the Southern Song Dynasty had to pay a heavy tribute to the Jin Dynasty.

Note: The information on the four generals and the Shao Xing Peace Agreement provided here give only a brief synopsis of a complex political and warring time. It is provided here as background for Yue Fei’s martial arts.

Conclusions

That Yue Fei came from a peasant family is well documented. Martial arts training at the time required considerable financial means to seek out teachers who could impart skills in archery, horsemanship, swordsmanship, and spearmanship. Further, to be able to engage in this type of demanding physical training required good nutrition.

Yue Fei advanced from a common soldier to the rank of general, and succeeded General Zong Ze (宗泽,1060-1128), who had taken Yue Fei under his wing. That Yue Fei fought valiantly against the Jin invaders, there is no doubt.

Let us examine the styles accredited to Yue Fei: Yue Shi Lian Quan, Xingyi Quan, and Chuo Jiao.

Yue Shi Lian Quan, is also known as Yue Shi San Shou, Ba Shan Fan, and Ba Fan Shou.
The only mention in the literature on any of the above-named styles is Ba Shan Fan in Qi Jiguang’s (戚继光, 1528-1588) book, Ji Xiao Jin Shu (紀效新書)– New Treatise on Military Efficiency. The section on “Essentials of the Fists ” briefly mentions Ba Shan Fan. This book was written during the Ming Dynasty. There are no other records with any of the style names cited above.

During the Qing Dynasty, the monks Dao Ji (道濟) and Fa Cheng (法成) taught Yue Shi San Shou to Liu Shijun (刘仕俊, 1840-1910), a renowned martial arts master regarded as the father of Ying Zhao (鷹爪). Liu Shijun became Chief Martial Arts Instructor for the Shen Ji Battalion. He had many prominent students; among his disciples were his grandnephew, Liu Chengyou (刘成有), as well as Liu Dekuan (刘德宽, 1826-1911) and Li Zhensheng (李振生). Liu Chengyou then taught his third son, Li Qiwen (劉啟文), and his nephew Chen Zizheng (陈子正, 1878-1933), known as the Eagle Claw King.

Xingyi Quan, as it is widely practiced today, was developed by Li Luoneng (李洛能, 1807–1888), who learned from Dai Longbang (戴龍邦,1732–1801) from Shanshi Province. In turn, Dai learned Xin Yi Liu He Quan (心意六合拳) from Cao Jiwu (曹繼武, 1662-1722). In turn, Cao learned from Ji Jike (姬際可, 1588–1662). There is no documentation as to who Ji’s teacher was. So Xingyi Quan can only be traced back to the Ming Dynasty.

As for Chuo Jiao, it is now more commonly known as Chuo Jiao Fan Zi (戳脚翻子). The legendary origins point to a certain Deng Liang (鄧良), who taught Zhou Tong (周同), who in turn taught Yue Fei. For a style with illustrious figures such as Yue Fei, there should be more traceable evidence, and Chou Jiao would likely have been mentioned in Qi Jiguang’s book in the section on “Essentials of the Fists.”

There is barely any mention of Chuo Jiao during the waning days of the Ming Dynasty. Only during the Qing Dynasty did different branches of Chuo Jiao come to light. During the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), one of its prominent leaders, Feng Keshan (馮克山, 1776-1858), was known to be a master of the style. One of the most famous modern exponents of Chuo Jiao Fan Zi was Wu Binlou (吳斌, 1898-1977), who taught many students in Beijing.

Note: In Volume 18 of Qi Jiguang’s book, Illustrated Treatise on Military Weapons, there is an entry on Ji Li Chuo Jiao (蒺藜戳腳). This refers to a type of firearm throwing technique that has nothing to do with the martial art of Chuo Jiao. Other sources claim to associate Chuo Jiao to the ancient Chinese football game of Cu Ju (蹴鞠). If you try hard enough you can make all sorts of connections.

I also note that Zhou Tong, because of his association with Yue Fei, is linked to several other Chinese martial arts styles that certainly did not exist until the late Ming or early Qing Dynasty. 

My Personal View

I laid the groundwork for my views in the second paragraph of this post when I cited mythology and the habitual practice in Chinese culture to attribute the origins of a martial arts style to a deity or heroic historical figure. This phenomenon is not limited to martial arts and is prevalent in other aspects of Chinese culture.

In Yue Fei’s time, a young man who aspired to join the army and to make advancement, would have sought to become proficient with horsemanship, archery, and the use of the spear and the sword. Any unarmed method of combat would have been of secondary importance since no one goes into battle empty-handed while facing a heavily armed and armored foe. If we study other cultures, such as the Greeks and Romans, and later armies of medieval Europe, we can see the futility of fighting unarmed in the melee of heated battlefield combat where being trampled to death by friend and foe was a distinct possibility.

Furthermore, Yue Fei, at the peak of his military power, led an army of more than 100,000 troops. He had little time to teach his soldiers. He shouldered enormous responsibilities and would have delegated such tasks to his subordinates. Training was conducted in groups of various sizes and focused on the strategic deployment of troops and the use of weapons on the battlefield. Yue Fei was executed at age 39. While he achieved much and is justly revered, it is doubtful that he transmitted any empty-hand martial arts skills to his soldiers, much less that he created all the styles attributed to him.